are mesquite trees invasive to texas

Understanding these patterns can inform management strategies that aim to protect native plant communities from guineagrass invasion. Cairns MA, Lackey RT (1992). Invasive species 7, pp. 2. In some regions, this tree is referred to as a noxious weed, which is why steps have been taken to control its growth. http://texastreeid.tamu.edu/. In addition to diminishing the value of Texas grazing lands, mesquite trees expansion in southeastern New Mexico negatively impacted the breeding of lesser prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus), a species of conservation concern ([13]). Moreover, cuts must be made below the crown to ensure no resprouting. Did You Know? Mesquite Trees Are an Invasive Species - Earthbuddies Herbicides have been heavily used to combat mesquite propagation; however, herbicides have proven ineffective as the complete solution to the mesquite problem ([14]). Rangeland Ecology and Management 70: 68-77. Perfectly adapted for its dry environment, the mesquite is a hardy tree. Viewpoint: a theoretical basis for planning woody plant control to maintain species diversity. - doi: 10.3832/ifor2456-011, Received: Apr 06, 2017Accepted: Jul 10, 2018, First online: Sep 25, 2018Publication Date: Oct 31, 2018Publication Time: 2.57 months, SISEF - The Italian Society of Silviculture and Forest Ecology 2018. Prosopis juliflora trees have an extensive root system which have been found to penetrate as deep as 53 m ([35]), and the P. glandulosas root depth has been recorded down to 50 m ([17]). However, mesquite now completely dominates portions of Sudans once tillable farm land and has been reclassified as a noxious weed as part of their government-sponsored mesquite eradication program ([45], [48]). This characteristic probably enables newly established mesquite trees to colonize even the lowest fertility soils. In Texas, landowners spent $25 million over a 10-year period to clear 300.000 ha of mesquite trees, a fraction of the 22 million ha of Texas land affected by this invasion. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. In South Texas, Guinea grass is commonly observed mostly around shrub clumps, or mottes, rather than in the grassy matrix between the trees. One of the major uses of this tree is that it is a nitrogen-fixing tree, which means that it restores nitrogen in the soil. Mesquite taproots can extend as much as 200 feet below the surface and the surface roots may extend 50 feet or more past the outer edge of the crown. Perspective on the control of invasive mesquite trees and possible Plant, Cell and Environment 38: 89-100. Land managers have studied mechanical, chemical, fire, and biological control agents to control mesquites unwanted growth which currently covers nearly one-third of Texas pasture lands. Its seeds and blooms will attract bees, while the tree can be a nesting site for birds. An alien species doesnt become a problem until it begins to out-compete the native species, thereby displacing it from its home. However, in many parts of the world their uncontrolled spread has significantly decreased the value of the rangeland they were meant to improve and enrich. We use ecological measurements in the field, plant functional and physiological measures in the field and in greenhouse experiments on BFL campus. This study is being conducted in South Texas chaparral habitat in areas of frequent disturbance by cattle. Image Source: The wood properites of Mesquite (. The Invasive Species Research Lab at BFL is researching the ecology of these grasses in both native and introduced ranges to better inform approaches for the sustainable management of these species. They're just plain pretty. A small-scale biomass energy conversion plant was created to use brush material such as mesquite or redberry juniper (Juniperus pinchotii) as fuel in a small-scale (10kW) batch-type, fixed-bed gasifier. This research investigated mesquite wood chips as an organic filter material that met both Mexicos and USAs regulations for reuse in irrigation. 6789 Quail Hill Pkwy, Suite 211 Irvine CA 92603. Farmers in South Africa will serve as example to illustrate this point. If access to groundwater is reduced by either humankind or natural methods linkage between groundwater and self-generated soil nutrients will be minimized ([24]). FAOSTAT (2016). Chilean Mesquite Pros And Cons - World of Garden Plants Height: 30-50 feet Spread: 30-50 feet Growth rate: Slow to moderate (moderate to rapid with abundant water) Where it grows: Southern Arizona Bark: Dark brown, rough, shaggy Shade: Casts light, filtered shade, making it an ideal nurse tree Leaves: Gray-green with 12-30 small leaflets on one or two pairs of pinnae Mesquite Invasion Threatens a Unique Species in India How can an alien species thrive over a native species? The cost to remove these trees is staggering. Toxic. 9. Given their current and historical use as pasture grasses, our research must inform sustainable management strategies by ranchers and potential biological control. It thrives across the western two thirds of the state, both in rural pastures and on urban lots. Beyond this, the organism must be able to establish a viable and growing population. No thank you. Being a tree that survives well in arid regions, mesquite is a good option for xeriscaped gardens. Texas A&M Forest Service, Some information obtained from: www.texasinvasives.org, Chinese Tallow Tree How do you identify mesquite? Invasive species can also have economic consequences and can endanger human health. grass, respectively ([61]). 330-337 (online: 14 June 2019), The feasibility of implementing cross-border land-use management strategies: a report from three Upper Silesian Euroregions, vol. Hamilton WT, McGinty A, Ueckert DN, Hanselka CW, Lee MR (2004). Hardwood sawn timber has historically garnered higher prices than pulpwood with an average of 20.40 US $ ton-1 ([1]). Bee foraging was measured to understand flowering and pod production of the P. glandulosa var. However, the same traits that make buffelgrass desirable for ranching also hinders natural ecosystem processes. Economic and greenhouse gas efficiency of honey mesquite relative to other energy feedstocks for bioenergy uses in the Southern Great Plains. ([28]) investigated the genus Prosopis, describing potential food applications which are similar to the food applications of the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua) cultivated in Spain. However, even when they understood the invasive nature of Prosopis, approximately 63% of farmers continued to use the Prosopis pods as fodder for their livestock. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Our site includes quite a bit of content, so if you're having an issue finding what you're looking for, go on ahead and use that search feature there! The most notably prolific of those mesquite trees growing in Texas is the honey mesquite. Teague WR, Ansley RJ, Kreuter UP, Pinchack WE, McGrann JM (2001). In Texas, landowners spent $25 million over a 10-year period to clear 300.000 ha of mesquite trees, a fraction of the 22 million ha of Texas land affected by this invasion. Hardwood Publishing Inc., Charlotte, NC, USA, web site. ENH-661/ST502: Prosopis glandulosa: Mesquite - EDIS J. Miller Invasive Plants of the Eastern United A species of mesquite tree from South America is growing like wildfire in Morocco and elsewhere in Africa, but. Ellsworth SW, Crandall PG, Lingbeck JM, OBryan CA (2018). Image Source: Enlarge/Reduce In some places, the plants are removed and the trees are burned to control its growth. These reported variables contributed to a mesquite wood chip OFMs meeting the critical requirements of waste water treatment for reuse in irrigation set by the USA and Mexican governments. glandulosa; (K): mesquite from Senegal, Africa, P. juliflora (from [28] - reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd). Empirical hydrological and vegetational data have been used to create a model for P. velutina to explore the capacity for translocation of ground water and the potential for damaging the development of riparian ecosystems. Mesquite is quite invasive in cattle pastures and open, unmaintained fields. Mesquite can be a difficult brush species to control as it is hardy, drought-tolerant, and easily adapts to rangelands. Most of the introductions that result in invasive species are human caused. A gluten-free flour made from the seeds of another heavily studied species, Prosopis alba, has a unique flavor and aroma ([53]). At the same time, native species were declining. 2 - Prosopis pods of various species and origins. Here's how to get rid of hard-to-kill brush effectively. Another method of reduction tested include competitive inhibition from grass roots as means to control mesquite growth ([36], [42]). Pollen contamination and mating patterns in a Prosopis alba clonal orchard: impact on seed orchards establishment, DAmico I, Vilardi JC, Saidman BO, Ewens M, Bessega C, vol. In addition, its radial and tangential shrinkage are almost equal, which reduces stress on the wood during high moisture building, i.e., seasonal weather changes. Over the 10-year period from Fiscal Year 2000 to Fiscal Year 2010 the Texas State Soil and Water Conservation Board (TSSWCB) spent almost 50 million US $ treating approximately 300.000 ha with herbicides and the mechanical removal of this invasive species. Brackenridge Field Laboratory 2907 Lake Austin Boulevard Austin, TX 78703(512) 471 - 2114, Brackenridge Field Laboratory, College of Natural Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin. The presence of sharp, pointy horns on the branches protects the tree from herbivores. http://texastreeid.tamu.edu/, Accessibility, Site Policies & Public Notices. The biggest mesquite tree in Texas is about 56 feet in height, with a crown of 87 feet, and circumference of trunk being 6 feet. They also mixed the gum in water to make a herbal infusion, which was used for treating eye infections. glandulosa) and various other fine woods (commonly used values - [44]). Impacts of mesquite distribution on seasonal space use of lesser prairie-chickens. The low volumetric shrinkage in mesquite woods is desirable as long as the shrinkage remain uniform within the wood. 1). glandulosa) as tested by the Texas Forest Products Laboratory over a 15-year period ([44]). Mesquite trees can become quite large with the honey mesquite known to grow to 7.6 m in height with its main support trunk as large as 0.6 m in diameter. Mesquite trees are one of the toughest trees known to man, with more than 40 species worldwide and 7 of those species growing in Texas. While different parts of the mesquite tree have varied uses, mesquite tree is unpopular due to its invasive nature. Alternative chemical treatments that allow treated mesquite lands to be used for multi-uses such as livestock production and wildlife habitat have been investigated ([6]). Native Americans used the bean pods of this tree for food. Its width is about equal to its height. The magnificent mesquite (1st edn). Web site. Environment Research Letters 7: 45905. Fisheries 17: 6-10. Nectar from mesquite tree is also known to yield a good-quality honey. If you cant find a workshop in your area, contact us to schedule one at your facility. 2 - The variation in the physical and mechanical properties of mesquite wood (Prosopis glandulosa var. Similar to Honey Mesquite, but suited more to moist sites in the Trans-Pecos. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. The same species might grow into shrubs that might be 2 or 3 feet in height in dry or windy regions, while it might grow into a tree that is more than 30 feet tall in areas where the weather is more suitable. Investigating patterns of symbiotic nitrogen fixation during vegetation change from grassland to woodland using fine scale (15)N measurements. Once damaged, the original few-stemmed trees regrow and resprout as multi-stemmed thickets, thus worsening the mesquites negative impacts ([3]). glandulosa; (2): Quercus falcate Michx. Accessibility, Site Policies & Public Notices Native species may lack adaptations that allow them to resist competition from or predation by invasive species. Liquid yield from juniper and mesquite bio-fuel gasification. Enlarge/Shrink The mesquite gums improved interfacial and emulsifying properties are attributed to the mesquite gums higher protein content ([23], [43], [46]). Mesquite should be grown in full sun on well-drained soil. A balanced approach is needed, for example by limiting seed production and escape into natural areas, and reduction of excess biomass which presents a fire hazard. Mesquite trees have continued to invade additional land, increasing their coverage by about two percent annually in certain Texas counties, based on long term studies conducted since 1976, which observed the changes in honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) canopy cover during a 20-year period ([4]). Thus, the novel use of mesquite wood as a bio-filter was deemed viable. 5, pp. Influence of water/heat stress on flowering and fruiting of mesquite (, Lpez-Franco YL, Goycoolea FM (2006). Just about ten years ago, there were a lot of lush shrubs that grow from the sand and rocks of Sudan. With the development of roads, airlines, and global commerce, species can now travel from one corner of the world to the South and Southwest in a matter of hours. The mesquite ranks the lowest in volumetric shrinkage, about one-fourth that of other woods. Its true, but they may not be the kind of aliens that you traditionally think of. We are using this knowledge towards applications in management, and aiding in the search for potential biological control.Brackenridge Field Lab leverages public and private partnerships with local and international partners in order to understand the basic biology and ecology of invasion. The effects of equivalence ratio, particle size, moisture content on the temperature profile, gas composition, and higher heating value (HHV) of both mesquite and redberry juniper wood were analyzed. Examples of non-native Various parts of the tree were used by the Native Americans. They can provide shade; fall, spring, or year-round color; and plenty of visual interest no matter where they're planted. Mesquite | Texas Natural Resources Server - Texas A&M University They crushed mesquite leaves and mixed them with water. Bravo L, Grados N, Saura-Calixto F (1998). Mesquite, Land Management, Prosopis spp., Biofuel. However, unlike the USA, Peru does not view its species of mesquite as a noxious weed and is not seeking to eradicate it. Clusters of yellow blossoms of mesquite tree attract varied types of insects such as ladybugs or butterflies. In addition, The Texas Extension Service also has a tool to help estimate the economic cost of mesquite tree removal through various methods ([55]). Controlled burning has been identified as probably the most cost-effective method of mesquite removal ([54]). A heat-loving, drought tolerant tree with an open, airy, crown. The whole seed contained 34% protein, while the whole pod flour contained 5.8% protein, and the pulp (pericarp) flour contained 3.5% protein. Evaluation of argentine and peruvian. Converting mesquite thickets to savanna through foliage modification with clopyralid. The improved fertility is the reason why some grasses grow very well under these trees. Biodiversity and management of natural resources: the issues. As renowned biologist E. O. Wilson states, On a global basisthe two great destroyers of biodiversity are, first, habitat destruction and second, invasion by exotic species.. P. farcta was used in a catalytic reaction using ZnCl2 and NaOH. Fig. Project Learning Tree is sponsored by: ([58]) evaluated the potential effects of Evippe and Prosopidopsylla flava, biological control agents from Argentina, in a study performed in Australia. Legal Notice. Wise RM, Van Wilgen BW, Le Maitre DC (2012). [in Spanish], Lpez Villagra GM, Felker P (1997). can contaminate agricultural seed crops and reduce their value, pose health threats to livestock, and necessitate costly repairs to harvesting machinery. EAB is a wood-boring pest of ash trees that has killed millions of trees and is now confirmed in 12 Texas counties. Western honey mesquite (Prosopis torreyana) has smaller leaflets and occurs in West Texas only. Therefore, the evidence suggested ranchers do not need to continue the current practice of deferred grazing to increase the grass biomass with the intent of building adequate burning foliage for winter fires. Its brown and gold color and swirling grain makes it the perfect type of wood for making furniture with a rustic appeal. Influence of understory removal, thinning and P fertilization on N. NASS (2016). A single tree can consume nearly 21 gallons of water per day. Dr. Peter Felker provided valuable insight from his past work when contacted for this paper. Production quantities of carobs by country. 3). Texas State Soil and Water Conservation Board 1-8, Temple, TX, USA, web site. The cost of using Triclopyr (3.4.6-trichloro-2-pyridinyloxyacetic acid, butoxyethyl ester), a top-kill herbicide alone, at an application rate of 0.56 kg ha-1 was reported to cost be 37 US $ ha-1, while the cost of using a mixture of 0.28 kg ha-1 Clopyralid, a root-kill herbicide, (3.6-dichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid, monoethanolamine salt) plus 0.28 kg ha-1 Triclopyr was approximately $62 ha-1. A possible control mechanism for mesquite growth is to restrict groundwater availability in controlled areas. For more than 2,000 years, Native Americans moved plants and animals all over the South and Southwest. The pods were ground to make flour, which in turn was used for making dishes. The San Antonio Express-News reports this most iconic of Texas trees is a . Peruvian products, including the flour and algarrobina, have received USDA certified organic status in the USA. Image Source: Northington, David K. When N2 was removed, the HHV of the gas end product of the mesquite and redberry juniper wood was 26% and 27.5%, respectively, with the equivalence ratio being 2.7. contacts per week: 131.48, Article citations are based on data periodically collected from the Clarivate Web of Science web site(last update: Feb 2023), Total number of cites (since 2018): 4Average cites per year: 0.67. 533-543 (online: 01 December 2014), Perspective on the control of invasive mesquite trees and possible alternative usesEllsworth et al. Prosopis glandulosa, commonly known as honey mesquite, is a species of small to medium-sized, thorny shrub . vegetative species were planted for soil stabilization or to stop erosion and for forage for grazing cattle. 77-84 (online: 14 March 2022), Deforestation, land conversion and illegal logging in Bangladesh: the case of the Sal (Shorea robusta) forests, vol. AMS (2016). Hydrocolloids at interfaces and the influence on the properties of dispersed systems. Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC), is an medium-sized tree (family Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae), that has been intorcuded around the world.It is a noxious invasive species in Africa, Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula and a source of highly allergenic pollen in. An invasive species that feasts on trees has spread to more areas across the Lone Star State, according to the Texas A&M Forest Service. Its bark is used for roofing in some regions. The following activities relate to Aggressive Invaders from the PLT PreK-8 Activity Guide: For more information about The applications for mesquite trees and their products are nearly limitless, but how to manage mesquite trees invasion of lands still eludes researchers and government agencies alike. These processes contributed to mesquites rapid expansion across much of Texas rangeland ([22]). The authors attribute the variability to the difference in soil composition and vegetation surrounding the mesquite trees on the two separate plots. In fact, mesquite trees are some of the worst invasive species on the planet. Oecologia 108: 583-595. Products developed from the mesquite pods include gluten-free flour, caffeine-free coffee bean substitutes, and a syrup called algarrobina ([32]). Texas Forestry Association Well-to-wheels energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of ethanol from corn, sugarcane and cellulosic biomass for US use. Understanding the importance of native, non-native and invasive species is very important. The pods were also used for making a therapeutic tea. Van Klinken RD, Fichera G, Cordo H (2003). While passing through an animal digestive tract, the mesquite seeds are scarified and then excreted in manure, which is a perfect growing medium. Wang T, Park S, Ansley RJ, Amosson SH (2014). The PLT Activity Guides are available from participating in a one day workshop. Optimal timing of mowing is between early spring and late fall when seeds typically sprout ([6]). Mesquite Tree - Prosopis pubescens, Prosopis velutina - DesertUSA We are also collaborating with a Kenyan research group at Mpala Research Center led by Dr. Dino Martins to understand buffelgrass' home range ecology and explore prospective biological control approaches. Open in Viewer. Central Texas Invasive Plants TREES Tree of Heaven 1 Mimosa, Silk Tree 3 Paper Mulberry 5 Chinese Parasol Tree 7 Large Leaf Privets 9 Chinaberry11 Chinese Pistache 13 . Acetone was held at 295 C, which achieved a liquid yield of 49.7%, indicating that most of the biomass was recovered as bio-oil, with HHV between 20 and 34 MJ kg-1. It is not enough for a species to be able to exist in its new environment, although a close match between environmental conditions in the species' home environment and the environment to which it is introduced is fundamental to its survival there. Category: Trees Water Requirements: Drought-tolerant; suitable for xeriscaping Sun Exposure: Full Sun Foliage: Deciduous Foliage Color: Chartreuse/Yellow Orange/Apricot Height: 20-30 ft. (6-9 m) Spacing: 12-15 ft. (3.6-4.7 m) Hardiness: When is the best time to cut down and eradicate invasive mesquite trees? These plants have been identified as particularly worrisome terrestrial invasive species in the South Texas Plains ecoregion. His sales of firewood paid for most of his removal cost. Pro: The perfect canopy for shade. In a follow up study, the gas yield formation from the mesquite ranged from 0.51 to 0.31 per unit mesquite in the gasification process ([20]). Semi-evergreen. Poison ivy, poison oak, kudzu, and mesquite are four of the toughest brush species whose presence on a property goes beyond problematic and into damaging. "They don't need a lot of water, so they'll work in a xeriscaped yard . Leaf-out in springtime is a sign to local farmers that the last frost has passed. For example, the hardwood pricing publication Hardwood Review Global did not report a specific cost for mesquite, while reporting many others like cottonwood, cherry, hard maple, hickory, red oak, white oak, and walnut ([34]). How to Get Rid of Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Kudzu, and Mesquite Thornless Chilean Mesquite, Prosopis chilensis, Monrovia Plant Personal interviews were conducted with mesquite management experts to understand in depth the issues facing brush management of the Prosopis species. The use of various water sources was measured and confirmed by oxygen-stable isotope ratios. Texas A&M Forest Service - Trees of Texas - List of Trees Three different treatments by aerial spray: (1) untreated, (2) Clopyralid alone at 0.28 kg ha-1 and (3) 1:1 mixture of Clopyralid + Triclopyr at 0.28 +0.28 kg ha-1 were applied on two separate plots that were 80 km apart. While taking a cross-sectional review of potential solutions for Prosopis brush management around the world, this paper emphasizes P. glandulosa bush management in southwest North America as a focal point. Economics of managing mesquite in north Texas: a sensitivity analysis. Targeting biological control across diverse landscapes: the release, establishment, and early success of two insects on mesquite (, Vasile FE, Martinez MJ, Pizones Ruiz-Henestrosa VM, Judis MA, Mazzobre MF (2016). SAN ANTONIO . Here is the lowdown on the mesquite tree. In addition, access to ground water enabled the proliferation of the P. pallida on the highlands of Hawaii ([24]). These grasses represent a widespread and costly problem in Texas and more broadly in rangelands, and pasturelands across the United States. An OFM can be used as a bio-filter over an organic bed system, serving as a decentralization technology alternative to conventional municipal wastewater treatment ([51]). About 85% of the 17-month-old seedlings were destroyed in the summer burning compared to only 35% of the 10-month-old seedlings being destroyed in the winter fires. The presence of the invasive emerald ash borer (EAB) has been confirmed in Cooke County. 7, pp. Since mesquite is not harvested on a large commercial scale within the USA, reports will show mesquite wood mixed with other hardwoods. Mesquite and some species of the genus Acacia, another nitrogen-fixing tree, have been estimated to be able to fix 30-40 kg N ha-1 year-1 ([28]). Native Plant Information Network, document.write(new Date().getFullYear()); Texas A&M Forest Service - All rights reserved, Member Texas A&M System For example, when land managers rent equipment for mechanical removal or contract chemical spraying companies, they can use the tool to: (1) estimate how many mesquite trees need to be removed to make their work economically impactful, and (2) where they should concentrate their efforts based on digital imaging of the coverage of mesquite trees on their property. Seed pods of the mesquite tree were used extensively by early cattle ranchers to feed their livestock which contributed to the change in grassland ecology, especially in the Southern USA, Argentina, Australia and Africa ([9]). 8, pp. Honey mesquite (P. glandulosa) is a native of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona rangelands. iForest 11: 577-585. Hardwood (2016). During a drought, vegetative growth stops, but will resume quickly after a period of rainfall. Characterization of syrups and dietary fiber obtained from mesquite pods (, Burkart A (1976). PDF iForest Review Article - ResearchGate Panicum maximum (Megathyrsusmaximus)(Guinea grass). Guinea grass is another perennial bunch grass native to Africa that grows in thick stands, outcompeting native plants and reducing diversity. An invasive species is a species that occurs in an area, region, ecosystem or habitat in which it did not originate and causes negative economic and environmental impact on the landscape and to human health. It can go 45 feet inside the soil and will go through the water level under the soil. Bark is thin and brown or gray at first, breaking into a dark, rough, scaly surface on branches, and then into dark brown or black ridges and furrows on the trunk. The immense density of the mesquite species invasion in the USA remains the highest in Texas (Fig. In response, researchers are searching for economically viable uses for harvested trees and seeds to provide an alternative to the high cost of removal. Journal of Range Management 56: 72-80. However, one disadvantage explained by the author is mesquite wood can have a high variation in density, bending strength, volumetric shrinkage and radial shrinkage (Tab. Increased understanding of biological nitrogen fixation has occurred by measuring nitrogen-fixation in Prosopis glandulosa. In the TimberMart South, second quarter report of 2016, mesquite pulpwood averaged around 10 US $ ton-1 and sawn timber averaged 25 US $ ton-1 ([56]). Also, lack of natural controls in the new environment is also a factor in the establishment of invasive species. Ansley JR, Wu BX, Kramp B (2001). Texas PLT, TEKS correlations and how you can get these The increased number of pods from the tree had an association with increased number of visitation by bees regardless of the nectar production ([37]). Furthermore, the economic cost to run an efficient land management program is a barrier: the estimated control cost for appropriate mesquite management (> 9.5 million US $ yr-1) far surpasses the entire budget of the Public Work programs of South Africa ([64]). Chemical and nutritional properties of different fractions of. It thrives across the western two-thirds of Texas, both in rural pastures and on urban lots. Careful and consistent land management is required to remove established mesquite trees and to prevent their aggressive reinvasion. Mesquite trees seen as blessing, curse in parts of Texas
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